The 19th century and beyond

Lesson 1: Gold Rush and its Consequences

Introduction

The discovery of gold at Sutter's Mill in Coloma, California, in 1848 ignited a frenzy that would forever alter the state's landscape and demographics. The Gold Rush, as it came to be known, brought a massive influx of settlers from around the globe, all eager to strike it rich. While this period is often romanticized as a time of opportunity and adventure, it had devastating consequences for Native American communities in California. This lesson delves into the impact of the Gold Rush on the Ohlone, Miwok, and other Indigenous groups, highlighting the violence, displacement, and cultural disruption that followed.  

Historical Context

Before the Gold Rush, the Native Californian population was estimated to be between 100,000 and 150,000. These communities had already experienced significant disruption due to Spanish colonization and the mission system. However, the Gold Rush brought an unprecedented wave of newcomers, dramatically increasing the non-Native population from roughly 14,000 in 1848 to over 250,000 by 1852. This rapid demographic shift had a profound impact on Native people and their ancestral lands.  

• Land Dispossession: The gold fields were often located on traditional Native territories. Miners, driven by the pursuit of wealth, often disregarded existing land claims and treaties, encroaching on Indigenous lands and disrupting traditional lifeways. Benjamin Madley, in his book An American Genocide, describes how miners "saw Indians as obstacles to be removed, by force if necessary, from areas where gold had been or might be found." (Madley, 2016, p. 152).  

• Violence and Conflict: The competition for resources and land led to increased violence against Native communities. Miners, often armed and organized into vigilante groups, attacked Native villages, stole resources, and committed acts of murder and rape. Historian Brendan Lindsay notes that "violence against Indians was commonplace, often characterized by a chilling brutality." (Lindsay, 2012, p. 87). State-sanctioned militias were also formed, funded by taxpayer money, to carry out massacres and forcibly remove Native people from their lands.  

• Disease and Mortality: The Gold Rush brought new diseases, such as cholera, measles, and influenza, to which Native populations had little immunity. These diseases spread rapidly through mining camps and settlements, devastating Indigenous communities already weakened by displacement and violence. According to historian James Rawls, "disease was the most significant killer of California Indians during the Gold Rush." (Rawls, 1984, p. 135).  

Read more: https://www.c-span.org/clip/public-affairs-event/native-americans-during-the-california-gold-rush/4752755

The Impact on Native Communities

The Gold Rush had a catastrophic impact on the Ohlone, Miwok, and other Native American groups in California.  

• Population Decline: The combined effects of violence, disease, and displacement led to a precipitous decline in Native populations. Historians estimate that the California Indian population decreased from roughly 150,000 in 1848 to just 30,000 by 1870. (Cook, 1976, p. 202). Many communities were decimated, their numbers dwindling to the point where their cultural traditions were threatened with extinction.  

• Cultural Disruption: The influx of settlers and the disruption of traditional lifeways led to a breakdown of cultural practices and social structures. Native people were forced to adapt to a rapidly changing world, often losing their connection to their ancestral lands and traditions. Forced assimilation policies, including the kidnapping and indentured servitude of Native children, further aimed to erase Indigenous cultures.  

• Forced Removal: Many Native people were forcibly removed from their homelands and relocated to reservations. 1 These reservations were often located on marginal lands with limited resources, further undermining Native communities' ability to survive and thrive. The reservation system, combined with the ongoing effects of violence and disease, created a cycle of poverty and dependence that continues to impact Native communities today.  

Read more:

• Other Californians | Early California History: An Overview | Articles and Essays | California as I Saw It: First-Person Narratives of California's Early Years, 1849-1900 | Digital Collections | Library of Congress

• Federal Policies Trap Tribes in Poverty - American Bar Association

• Antje Deckert. B. Madley, An American Genocide: The United States and the California Indian Catastrophe, 1846-1873. State Crime Journal. 2019. Vol. 8(2):274-277. DOI: 10.13169/statecrime.8.2.0274 

• Lindsay, B. C. (2012). Murder state : California’s native American genocide, 1846-1873. University of Nebraska Press.

Video

Key Points from the Video:

The California Gold Rush, sparked by the discovery of gold in 1848, triggered a massive influx of people into the region. While it brought economic growth and statehood for California, it had devastating consequences for Native Americans.

Key Impacts:

• Land Dispossession: Miners often disregarded Native land rights, leading to displacement and conflict.

• Violence and Conflict: Competition for resources and land resulted in increased violence against Native communities, including massacres and forced removals.

• Disease and Mortality: New diseases brought by settlers decimated Native populations who lacked immunity.

Consequences for Native Communities:

• Population Decline: The combined effects of violence, disease, and displacement led to a drastic decline in Native populations.

• Cultural Disruption: Traditional lifeways were disrupted, and forced assimilation policies further eroded Native cultures.

• Forced Removal: Many Native people were forced onto reservations with limited resources, creating a cycle of poverty and dependence.

The Gold Rush is a complex period in California history, one that brought both progress and tragedy. It's crucial to acknowledge the devastating impact it had on Native American communities and recognize their resilience in the face of adversity.

End of unit exercises

Short Answer (5 points each):

Choose ONE of the following questions and write a short answer for each with a paragraph or two:

• Describe the impact of the Gold Rush on Native American land ownership and traditional lifeways. Use specific examples to illustrate your points.

• Explain the role of disease in the decline of Native populations during the Gold Rush era. Why were Native people particularly vulnerable to these diseases?

• Discuss the significance of forced removal and reservation policies in shaping the experiences of Native Americans in California. How did these policies contribute to the ongoing challenges faced by Native communities?

Essay (10 points):

Choose ONE of the following questions and write a well-developed essay response:

• Analyze the long-term consequences of the Gold Rush for Native American communities in California. Consider the impact on population, culture, land ownership, and ongoing struggles for justice and recognition.

• Imagine you are a Native Californian living during the Gold Rush. Describe the challenges you face, the strategies you might use to resist displacement and preserve your cultural identity, and your hopes for the future of your community.

Lesson 2: The Miwok: Diversity and Adaptations

Introduction

Despite facing immense challenges during the Mission Period and the Gold Rush, the Ohlone and Miwok people persevered. This lesson explores the ongoing struggles and remarkable resilience of these Indigenous communities in the 20th and 21st centuries. We will examine their efforts to reclaim their identity, revive their cultural traditions, and achieve self-determination.

Historical Context

The late 19th and early 20th centuries were a time of continued hardship for Native Californians. Forced onto reservations and subjected to assimilation policies, they faced poverty, discrimination, and the loss of traditional lifeways. However, even in the face of these challenges, they never gave up their struggle for survival and the preservation of their cultural heritage.

Ongoing Challenges

• Land Loss and Environmental Degradation: The loss of ancestral lands continued to impact Native communities, limiting their access to traditional resources and disrupting their connection to the land. Environmental degradation, including pollution and habitat destruction, further threatened their ability to practice traditional lifeways.

• Social and Economic Disadvantage: Native Californians experienced high rates of poverty, unemployment, and health disparities. Limited educational opportunities and systemic discrimination created barriers to economic advancement and social mobility.

• Cultural Erasure: Assimilation policies continued to discourage the practice of Native languages and traditions. Many children were sent to boarding schools where they were punished for speaking their native languages and forced to adopt Western customs.

Efforts to Reclaim Identity and Traditions

Despite these challenges, Native Californians actively worked to reclaim their identity and revive their cultural traditions.

• Cultural Revitalization: Efforts were made to revitalize Native languages, ceremonies, and arts. Community gatherings, language classes, and cultural events provided opportunities for younger generations to learn about their heritage and connect with their elders.

• Political Activism: Native Californians became increasingly involved in political activism, advocating for their rights and self-determination. They organized protests, formed alliances with other Indigenous groups, and lobbied for greater recognition and support from the government.

• Land Rights and Repatriation: Efforts were made to reclaim ancestral lands and sacred sites. Tribes also sought the repatriation of cultural artifacts and remains from museums and institutions, aiming to restore their cultural heritage and honor their ancestors.

Contemporary Bay Area Native Communities and Organizations

Today, several Ohlone and Miwok communities and organizations are actively working to preserve their culture and advocate for their rights in the Bay Area.

• Muwekma Ohlone Tribe: The Muwekma Ohlone Tribe is a federally recognized tribe that has been working for decades to reclaim their ancestral lands and gain federal recognition. They are involved in cultural preservation, education, and environmental stewardship.

• Indian Canyon: Located in Hollister, California, Indian Canyon is a sacred site for the Muwekma Ohlone Tribe. It serves as a center for cultural gatherings, ceremonies, and educational programs.

• Costanoan Indian Research, Inc.: This organization is dedicated to the preservation and revitalization of Ohlone culture. They offer language classes, cultural workshops, and educational resources.

• The Association of Ramaytush Ohlone: This organization represents the descendants of the Ramaytush Ohlone people, who inhabited the San Francisco Peninsula. They are involved in cultural preservation, education, and advocacy for their rights.

Video

Key Points:

Karina Gould, Chairperson of the Confederated Villages of Lisjan (Ohlone), discusses the historical and ongoing struggles and resilience of her people in their ancestral East Bay territories, including Oakland, Berkeley, Emeryville, and Piedmont.

Historical Impacts:

• Pre-Contact Abundance & Reciprocity: For thousands of years, Ohlone ancestors lived sustainably, in harmony with the land and waters, fostering an environment free from hunger or homelessness.

• Mission System (Spanish & Mexican Rule): Beginning in the 1700s, missionaries and Spanish soldiers brought disease, imprisonment, forced labor, and violence (whippings, murders), drastically changing Indigenous life and leading to massive population decline. Ohlone people were enslaved at missions like Dolores and San Jose.

• American Period & Extermination: After 1848, the U.S. conquest led to mass extermination backed by state laws and federal dollars, with bounty hunting and forced child servitude.

• Assimilation & Hiding: Boarding schools (like Chemawa) and Indian foster care forcibly removed children, eroding culture and forcing generations to hide their Indigenous identity to survive.

• Shellmound Destruction: Historical burial sites and villages were destroyed for development (e.g., Emeryville Shellmound paved over).

Contemporary Resilience & Rematriation:

• Reclaiming Visibility: Ohlone people are now visible, fighting for sovereignty, protecting sacred lands, and educating the public.

• Sogorea Te’ Land Trust: An urban Indigenous women-led land trust working to put Indigenous lands back into Indigenous hands.

• Rematriation: Defined as restoring living culture to its rightful place on Mother Earth, and restoring people to a spiritual relationship with ancestral lands. It is emphasized as women's work.

• Land Acquisition: The trust has reclaimed its first piece of land in 250 years in East Oakland and recently purchased its first home for a family with disabilities.

• Cultural Revitalization: Efforts include revitalizing the Chochenio language (with the first language institute), re-engaging with traditional land practices, and promoting community food distribution.

• Shumi Land Tax: A voluntary land tax (borrowed from the Wiyot Tribe) for those living or working on traditional Ohlone territories, supporting rematriation work and cultural programs.

• Partnerships & Advocacy: Collaborating with city governments (e.g., Berkeley's "Ohlone Territory" signage, Alameda's Chochenio Park and Shumi budget contribution) and cultural institutions to educate, advocate for land return, and foster reciprocity.

The talk underscores the unbroken tie of the Ohlone people to their land and their enduring commitment to rebuilding their culture and ensuring a future for generations to come.

End of unit exercises

Short Answer (5 points each):

Choose ONE of the following questions and write a short answer for each with a paragraph or two:

• Describe the ongoing challenges faced by Native Californians in the 20th and 21st centuries.

• Explain the importance of cultural revitalization efforts in preserving Native languages and traditions.

• Discuss the role of political activism in advocating for the rights and self-determination of Native Californians.

Essay (10 points):

Choose ONE of the following questions and write a well-developed essay response:

• Analyze the ways in which Native Californians have demonstrated resilience and resistance in the face of ongoing challenges.

• Research and discuss the work of a specific Bay Area Native community or organization in preserving their cultural heritage and advocating for their rights.